The Lugeon Test: Methodology, Interpretation, and Applications in Geotechnical Engineering

1. Introduction and Need

The Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana (PMAY), launched by the Government of India in 2015, stands as a monumental initiative aimed at addressing the severe housing shortage and transforming the landscape of informal settlements across the nation. Prior to PMAY, India faced a daunting urban housing deficit, estimated at 18.78 million units in 2012, primarily affecting Economically Weaker Sections (EWS) and Low-Income Groups (LIG). Millions lived in dilapidated 'kutcha' houses, congested dwellings, or lacked any formal shelter. This pervasive infrastructure deficit in housing not only compromised the dignity and safety of citizens but also acted as a significant bottleneck to overall socio-economic development, necessitating a unified and robust 'Housing for All' policy.

2. Background and Implementation Framework

The PMAY is a centrally sponsored scheme comprising two distinct components, tailored to address the diverse housing needs of the country:

• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Urban (PMAY-U): Launched on June 25, 2015, by the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MoHUA), it targets the urban poor, including slum dwellers. PMAY-U operates through four verticals:

  • In-Situ Slum Redevelopment (ISSR): Utilizing land as a resource to redevelop existing slums.
  • Credit Linked Subsidy Scheme (CLSS): Providing interest subvention on home loans for eligible urban beneficiaries across EWS, LIG, and Middle Income Group (MIG-I & MIG-II) categories.
  • Affordable Housing in Partnership (AHP): Financial assistance to states/UTs for housing projects in partnership with public or private sectors.
  • Beneficiary-led Construction (BLC): Direct financial assistance for individual house construction or enhancement by eligible families. The CLSS component was a key innovation, offering upfront interest subsidies on housing loans, thereby significantly reducing the effective EMI for beneficiaries. For EWS/LIG, an interest subsidy of 6.5% was provided on loans up to ₹6 lakh, while MIG-I and MIG-II categories received 4% and 3% interest subsidies on loans up to ₹9 lakh and ₹12 lakh respectively, for a maximum tenure of 20 years.

• Pradhan Mantri Awas Yojana – Gramin (PMAY-G): Launched in November 2016 by the Ministry of Rural Development, it aims to provide a 'pucca' house with basic amenities to all houseless households and those living in kutcha or dilapidated houses in rural areas. It replaced the erstwhile Indira Awas Yojana (IAY) and increased the minimum unit size to 25 sq.mt.

Both components involve central assistance, with contributions from state governments and beneficiaries. The schemes leverage technology like Geo-tagging and Direct Benefit Transfer (DBT) to ensure transparency and direct fund disbursal.

3. Impact: Achievements and Progress Data

PMAY has made substantial strides in its mission to provide affordable housing.

• Overall Sanctions & Completions: As of March 2025, over 1.23 crore (12.3 million) houses have been sanctioned under PMAY-U, with more than 1.07 crore (10.7 million) houses grounded for construction and approximately 80.5 lakh (8.05 million) houses completed and delivered.
• PMAY-G: For rural areas, the target was to complete 2.95 crore houses by March 2024. As of early 2024, approximately 2.6 crore (26 million) houses have been completed under PMAY-G, making significant headway towards its goal.
• Credit-Linked Subsidy (CLSS): This component has been particularly impactful for the urban middle class. As of its discontinuation for MIG categories in March 2021 (and for EWS/LIG in March 2022), it had benefited millions of beneficiaries, significantly easing access to institutional credit for housing.

The mission has not only provided shelter but also empowered women by making female head of the family the owner or co-owner of the house under PMAY-U, promoting inclusivity and dignity.

4. Current Status and Challenges

The original target for "Housing for All" under PMAY was by March 31, 2022, marking India's 75th year of independence. However, the deadline for completing houses sanctioned under PMAY-U has been extended to December 31, 2025, to allow for the completion of projects approved up to March 31, 2022. For PMAY-G, the target for 2.95 crore houses also extended to March 2024, with continuous monitoring of the remaining houses.

Despite impressive numbers, bottlenecks persist:

• Land Acquisition: Especially in urban areas, securing clear land titles and affordable land remains a significant challenge, slowing down project implementation for ISSR and AHP verticals.
• Beneficiary Identification: Ensuring that only eligible beneficiaries receive support and preventing exclusion errors can be complex.
• Fund Disbursal: While direct transfers have improved, delays in releasing state-share funds or operational challenges at the local level can still impact construction pace.
• Quality of Construction: Ensuring the quality and durability of houses, particularly in beneficiary-led models, requires robust monitoring.
• Urban-Rural Disparity: While PMAY-G has shown very high completion rates, PMAY-U, with its more complex multi-vertical approach and urban land constraints, faces unique challenges in achieving its targets.

The way forward involves streamlining approval processes, strengthening project management capacities at the local level, fostering greater private sector participation, and addressing land-related issues through innovative policies. PMAY's success is fundamental to India's Gati Shakti vision, as adequate housing is a critical pillar for a productive workforce and sustainable urban and rural development, contributing directly to the nation's broader economic aspirations.